“When in Rome: How the Romans Fell to Autocracy and Their Connection to Our World” was originally published in our Fall 2021 Print Edition: Authoritarianism.
In the wake of recent political events, there has been greater worry and focus on autocracies. Though there was an increase in democracies due to decolonization and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century, today 54% of the world’s population lives under an autocracy.1 This is not limited to small unstable states either, as larger, more established democracies are not as free as they once were.2 While this is concerning it’s not that surprising, as autocracies are one of the oldest forms of government around the world and will continue to exist. Even though every state is different, there are general patterns that allow for an autocratic government to take over that can be traced to the first major autocracy, The Roman Empire.
Altogether the term Autocracy can be traced back to the ancient Greeks in the 5th century, the Romans were the first major power in history to practice the system. It’s a system of government where one man holds power. Also, they can happen in many ways; from a democratically elected ruler slowly taking control, instability within the nation, or through assassinations.3 Regardless of how autocrats obtain power, it’s important that they maintain the facade of the past state that they took over, in order to make the transition of power look legitimate and to create stability. This is why after decades of civil war and instability within the late Roman Republic, the victorious Octavian did not disband the Roman Senate, nor did he become Emperor immediately.4 Furthermore, only candidates loyal to Octavian were allowed to run, and all of this was done to consolidate his power. Octavian made many good decisions to ensure his power, and he learned from the mistakes of his adopted father, Julius Caesar.
By the year 45 BC, Julius Caesar had won the civil war and firmly established himself as the most powerful man in Rome. With no major political opponents left, Caesar worked quickly to test the limits of his power. He was declared Dictator Perpetuo (Dictator for life) and had almost unlimited power. In addition, he wore purple-the color of royalty, had a special “chair” in the senate building that was just for him, and would be dead the following year.5 These major changes scared the Roman senate and they were worried that he would declare himself king. The Roman Republic had been around since 509 BC and was strongly against the idea of a monarchy, and this contributed to his assassination.6 Due to these events, Octavian, having seen the short-sighted decisions of his uncle, took over two years to declare himself emperor in 27 BC after winning the second civil war in 29 BC. He went through great lengths to increase his powers “legally” by making the senate that he controlled grant him absolute power. Another one of his ideas was the reformation of the Praetorian Guard. During the days of the republic, the Guards’ purpose was to protect Roman Generals. However, Octavian changed them into his personal bodyguards. They did much more than this though and often acted as secret police, through intimidation, conducting arrests and executions.7 The Guards’ existence was paradoxical, as they both protected the emperor and were his biggest threat as only they could carry weapons inside the pomerium (capital). Due to this, they received better pay than other units. Through this period in time, we see the first historical example of keeping the appearance of a republic intact in order to further the pursuits of an autocratic government, and this is one of the most common forms of government today.8
The Romans showed that stability and the appearance of representative government were essential after a power struggle. President Erdogan of Turkey is one of the few that have pulled this feat off. The modern state of Turkey came into existence after the end of World War One, with its leader Kemal Ataturk pushing for a secularist and industrialized state. However, Erdogan has been using Islamic rhetoric since the 1990s.9 Due to this, he became Prime Minister in 2003 and drew controversy in 2014. He was elected President, which was a ceremonial role, but then took the powers of prime minister, making him the undisputed leader of Turkey. However, he almost lost power in 2016 as there was an attempted coup by his generals. This coup resulted in the deaths of 240 people, and in 2017 a referendum was passed to drastically increase Erdogan’s power. Once the extra powers were passed to him, his journey to an autocrat was officially complete. Another more well-known example of this changing power dynamic can be seen with Vladimir Putin and the Russian state.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Republic was devastated throughout the ‘90s and Boris Yeltsin had to pick a successor for President. He picked Putin, the former KGB operative and current prime minister in late 1999, and he won a democratic election the following year. He was able to get the oligarchs on his side, won reelection in 2004, and was appointed prime minister in 2008. In 2012 Putin won a controversial election for president and was accused of voter fraud, and the legality of a third term was questioned as well.10 From this point on Russia’s rise to autocracy was complete. When analyzing all these examples, it’s clear that all three rulers were able to capitalize off of political instability to secure their political positions. Furthermore, they did not drastically change society so that their opponents did not oppose them in any significant way. They have also entrenched themselves so deeply in their states that it would be very difficult to remove them through legal means. When people do try to change the status quo, these rulers are quick to unleash state power.
Political violence was very common in Rome during the end of the late republic, with senators and politicians being threatened or outright murdered. The most obvious example of this was with Caesar, but there are many other examples during this period. Rome had this tradition of proscriptions, which is where the government puts out a list of names, and each person listed is an enemy of the state. If someone that was proscribed was killed, the person that killed them would be allowed to confiscate some of their property.11 This was a brutal affair, and its purpose was two-fold, as it allowed rulers to kill political dissents, as well as gain valuable property for their own benefit. There were also purges, but many, including Caesar, tried to avoid this due to its destructive nature. In cases where Roman rulers wanted to avoid bloodshed, citizens had the choice to be banished.12 if they wanted to avoid forced labor or death. The concept of prison was not normalized, but when comparing the past and present the same principles of preserving political power are applied. While most autocracies do not have the same extreme methods as the Romans did, many autocracies today imprison or commit violence against political prisoners so that they are not a threat to the current regime.
Currently, we see similarities between the past and present of autocracies today. Turkey in July 2016 had an attempted coup, and hundreds of activists, politicians, journalists, and others are being held due to suspected links to terrorist organizations, regardless of how flimsy the evidence is.13 Not only is this a potential human rights violation, but due to the pandemic, many of those imprisoned are at risk. Furthermore, President Erdoğan has a personal security detail called Turkey’s Presidential Security Department (TPSD). This department spent $35.9 million last year for his protection, which is more than double what the whole parliament of Turkey received after the events of 2016.14 The TPSD has also been involved in numerous acts of political violence. One infamous event was when they attacked anti-Erdogan protestors in D.C.15 We are now seeing similar events happening in Russia. Currently, there are around 400 political prisoners throughout the country, and likely there are many more.16 In addition, at the start of 2021, there were major protests around the country because Alexei Navalny (a prominent opposition politician) was arrested. This resulted in five thousand people being arrested, the restriction of freedom of movement, and increased the risk of covid-19 for many people throughout the country.17 Autocracies have either been punishing, imprisoning, or killing political prisoners for thousands of years, and some of the earliest examples in history can be traced back to the fall of the Roman Republic. There was also the issue of bribery and corrupt officials.
During the late republic, corruption was widespread. Though bribery was illegal it was practiced by almost every senator except for Cato, one of Caesar’s major political rivals. It was not until 171 B.C. that the first bribes were recorded.18 This was due to the state nearly being bankrupt after the Punic Wars, and wealthy citizens realized they could gain influence if they loaned the government money. As the republic grew through conquest, the need for money increased, and this only exacerbated the issue. From 67 BC to 50 BC, (the civil war started in 49 BC) there were major incidents of bribery every year, and it was no secret.19 It would be foolish to say that corruption started with the Roman republic, but it’s the first time that we see a major republic tearing itself apart due to corruption and leading to a new government.
There is some form of corruption within every country on earth, and it is found most frequently in autocratic states. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Russians have made billions from corruption within the state that the government pays little attention to.20 This can contribute to an ever-widening wealth gap between the rich and poor, where the autocracy can further its control of the state. There is also widespread corruption within both the public and private sections of Turkey.21 In autocracies, it’s difficult to stop corruption, and it can lead to an increase in suffering. This is just another unfortunate link between past and present.
While many may not think about the Roman republic when discussing the autocracies of today, both possess corruption and attacks on political dissent, as well as a need to consolidate power so they are not overthrown. While history doesn’t repeat itself it certainly rhymes, and by looking at the past maybe it’s possible to find answers for the future.
Endnotes:
1.Shelley Inglis et al. “Autocrats in the 21st Century Aren’t like Past Dictators – Just Look at Putin.” ThePrint, April 11, 2021, https://theprint.in/world/autocrats-in-the-21st-century-arent-like-past-dictators-just-look-at-putin/637577/.
2. “Autocratization Surges–Resistance Grows .” V-Dem, March 2020, https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/de/39/de39af54-0bc5-4421-89ae-fb20dcc53dba/democracy_report.pdf.
3. Barbara Geddes, et al. “Autocratic Breakdown and Regime Transitions: A New Data Set.” Perspectives on Politics, vol. 12, no. 2, [American Political Science Association, Cambridge University Press], 2014, pp. 313–31, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43279909.
4. S, Alen. “Octavian Augustus Reign in Roman Empire (27 BC – 14 AD) – Principate.” Short History Website, February 22, 2019, https://www.shorthistory.org/ancient-civilizations/ancient-rome/octavian-augustus-reign-in-roman-empire-27-bc-14-ad/.
5. Elizabeth Rawson. “Caesar’s Heritage: Hellenistic Kings and Their Roman Equals.” The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 65, [Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press], 1975, pp. 148–59, https://doi.org/10.2307/370068.
6. “Roman Republic.” National Geographic Society, July 3, 2018, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/roman-republic/.
7. Evan Andrews. “8 Things You May Not Know about the Praetorian Guard.” History.com, July 8, 2014, https://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-praetorian-guard.
8. Jonathan Eaton. “The Praetorian Guard.” The Classical Review, vol. 64, no. 1, [The Classical Association, Cambridge University Press], 2014, pp. 234–36.
9. “Recep Tayyip Erdogan: Turkey’s Pugnacious President.” BBC News, October 27, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13746679.
10. Pamela Engel. “How Vladimir Putin Became One of the Most Feared Leaders in the World.” Business Insider, February 14, 2017, https://www.businessinsider.com/how-vladimir-putin-rose-to-power-2017-2.
11. Frank N. Magill, et al. “Life’s Work .” Dictionary of World Biography, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago, IL, 1998, pp. 1208–1209.
12. Reitzenstein Ronning. “The Development of Exile and Banishment from the Roman Republic to the Early Empire.” The Development of Exile and Banishment from the Roman Republic to the Early Empire – Ancient History – LMU Munich, https://www.en.ag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/research/exilium/index.html.
13. “Turkish Court Jails Hundreds for Life over 2016 Coup Attempt.” The Guardian, November 26, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/turkish-court-jails-hundreds-life-2016-coup-attempt.
14. “Turkey Spent $35.9 Million to Protect Erdoğan in 2020 .” Turkish Minute, March 2, 2021, https://www.turkishminute.com/2021/03/02/ankara-spent-35-9-million-protect-erdogan-in-2020/.
15. Nicholas Fandos and Christopher Mele. “Erdogan Security Forces Launch ‘Brutal Attack’ on Washington Protesters, Officials Say.” The New York Times, May 17, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/17/us/turkish-embassy-protest-dc.html.
16. Vladimir Kara-Murza. “Opinion | Russia Has Hundreds of Political Prisoners in Geneva, President Biden Can Help Free Some of Them.” The Washington Post, June 14, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/06/14/biden-putin-free-russian-political-prisoners/.
17. Kgalalelo Gaebee. “Russia: Stop Violence against Peaceful Protesters.” CIVICUS Global Alliance, February 1, 2021, link unavaliable.
18. Howard Troxler. “Electoral Abuse in the Late Roman Republic.” Digital Commons, April 2, 2008, https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1536&context=etd.
19. Andrew Lintott. “Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic.” The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 80, [Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press], 1990, pp. 1–16, https://doi.org/10.2307/300277.
20. Anne Applebaum. “The Disturbing New Hybrid of Democracy and Autocracy.” The Atlantic, June 9 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/06/oligarchs-democracy-autocracy-daniel-obajtek-poland/619135/.
21. “Turkey Corruption Report.” GAN Integrity, November 5, 2020, https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/turkey/.
